Movement and exercise are important factors in the physical and mental wellbeing of children and adolescents. Childhood participation in sports and exercise are an important component of overall development, with many lessons learnt from team and individual sports, applicable to their later lives and physical health (Dahab & McCambridge, 2009). One area that has been the subject of criticism and controversy for many years is whether or not children should engage in resistance training and weight lifting exercises. These concerns were partly caused by a hospital survey that reported a high rate of injuries related to resistance training. However, upon further investigation it was found that these injuries were in fact a result of inappropriate technique, excessive loading and a lack of qualified professional supervision (Faigenbaum et al., 2009; McQuilliam et al., 2020).
Historically, myths around children and strength training have included concerns such as, stunting growth, compromising athletic performance, higher risk of injuries, concerns over the explosive nature of movements, the use of semi ballistic movements and concerns around the safety of 1RM testing (Falk & Eliakim, 2003; Legerlotz et al., 2016; Pierce et al., 2022; Stricker et al., 2020). Despite this, injuries due to resistance training have shown to be infrequent and further still, severe injury even more uncommon. In fact, there are many benefits of resistance training for youths including increased performance, improved body composition, cardiovascular system, psychosocial well-being, self-esteem and motor performance; reduced injury risk, strengthened bones, decreased metabolic risk factors and improvements in the long-term athlete development (LTAD; Collins et al., 2022; Faigenbaum et al., 2009; Pierce et al., 2022).
Although the recent research does claim a myriad of positive benefits in regards to resistance training, it is not surprising the myths surrounding such are continually perpetuated given that most research studies do not report adverse events. This may be due to the fact no injuries or adverse events occurred or that they were deemed too insignificant to warrant reporting. Either way, if professional organisations and researchers are going to continue to refute the aforementioned myths, then the reporting of injuries, adverse events or a lack thereof is imperative (Falk, 2019). Regardless, there is still less known around weightlifting, also referred to as Olympic style weight lifting (OWL) and whether or not it is appropriate for youths and adolescents to train such complex movements (Pierce et al., 2022).
In general, resistance training refers to the use of exercises that engages muscle contractions against external resistance, such as body weight, barbells, dumbbells or elastic bands in order to increase strength, power and endurance (Pierce et al 2022). Weightlifting is considered as a sport that involves two main competitive lifts, the snatch and the clean and jerk (Chaouachi 2014; Pierce et al 2022). These two advanced lifts include a multitude of variations and derivatives that can be practiced and learned separately for different purposes (Pichardo et al., 2019).
Over the years, professional organisations have refined and developed guidance for the use of resistance based training and weightlifting programmes in youths and adolescents. The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES; Barker et al., 2014), the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA; Faigenbaum et al., 2009) and the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA; Lloyd et al., 2012) all support the implementation of resistance training for youth and adolescents, encouraging advanced multi-joint exercises such as powerlifting exercises and their derivatives, in addition to plyometrics. Although OWL takes a considerable amount of time and coaching to learn the movements correctly, doing so during childhood may help support the development of competence and confidence as the child matures (Stricker et al., 2020). Furthermore, the American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM) recommends at least three sessions per week of varied, as well as unstructured, physical strengthening exercises. This may include playing in the playground or structured exercises such as lifting weights or using resistance bands (at least 60 minutes per week) as well specific weightlifting exercises consisting of 8-15 submaximal repetitions prioritising form and reducing fatigue. As a result, the children and adolescents who were involved in this style of training within the research studies, have shown significant increases in muscle growth and endurance beyond normal growth and maturation due to the increased muscular function (Holmes & Granados, 2021).
Although the research into OWL and the benefits of such on children and adolescents is less common than research on resistance training, there still appears to be some promising results emerging. Recent reviews have attempted to summarise the current opinion, for example, when investigating young weightlifters (ages 10-15 years) during a specific time period (28.8 ± 4.4 months months), the results of absolute strength in both the clean and jerk and the snatch lifts, nearly doubled. This demonstrates that with correct supervision from highly qualified and experienced coaches, the clean and jerk and snatch were shown to be a safe and effective method of training for children and adolescents. Furthermore, research has highlighted that weight lifting exercises for children and adolescents had a more positive outcome on performance compared to traditional resistance training after a 12-week programme. Within this, one noticeable aspect of performance improvement was the difference between pre and post peak height velocity in males. This peak high velocity, also referred to as maximum velocity of growth in height appeared to occur around the ages of 13.8 and 14.2 years. It therefore seems reasonable to suggest that training children and adolescents before, during and after this period may optimise the neuromuscular adaptation and performance outcomes in youths (Chaouachi et al., 2014; Pichardo et al., 2019). In addition, improvements in muscular power were achieved through the explosive power and the rate of force development generated during the weightlifting movements via the well-known explosive triple extension at the level of the ankle, knee and hip. (McQuilliam et al., 2020).
If weightlifting exercises and their derivatives are being incorporated into youth training programmes there are several important recommendations that should be taken into consideration. First, starting by focusing on increasing strength as this underpins power, whilst simultaneously using light loads to learn complex movements, ensuring that advances are undertaken in a gradual manner (Pierce et al., 2022; Stricker et al., 2020). Second, although there is no minimum age requirement for participation in resistance training, it is recommended that children should only partake if they are mentally and physically prepared to engage in the activity as well as being able to follow instructions (McQuilliam et al., 2020). Third, the child’s resistance training skills competency (RTSC) should also be considered prior to the development of individualised programmes (Stricker et al., 2020). Finally, ensuring that ongoing professional instruction is provided in order to achieve technique-driven progression (Stricker et al., 2020).
In general, 10-11 years of age is considered an adequate age to begin strength training, with countries such as Bulgaria demonstrating success in the world of weightlifting with children being recruited in this age group (Pierce et al., 2022). Moreover, it is recommended that weightlifting training should be implemented across various phases (age range 11-16 years), during the initial phase, training should mainly consist of general physical preparation (including dynamic exercises that support the development of the necessary movements and skills needed for weightlifting in the long term), weightlifting training should not exceed 40% of the total training process during the first year. During the second year, the training programme should consist of 50% general fitness, with 50% focusing on weightlifting techniques, to ensure that the correct habits of execution are instilled. As training progresses, there should be more focus on weightlifting, taking up to 55-60% of the total training process in the third year, and up to 70% in the fourth year (Pierce et al., 2022).
Despite the advanced level and complexities of movements in weightlifting, these exercise movements are trainable and are considered a safe and effective method of training for both children and adolescents (McQuilliam et al., 2020). Furthermore, research has suggested that a significant amount of adaptation to resistance training and weightlifting occurs during adolescence (Pierce et al., 2022), therefore it seems reasonable to suggest that childhood and adolescence can be a key factor and a crucial period for the development and adaptation for the LTAD.
In order for weightlifting to become a lifelong, effective and enjoyable activity, ensuring qualified supervision and programme variation, coupled with enthusiastic instructions and constructive feedback are essential (Stricker et al., 2020). Learning correct techniques from a young age or at a beginner’s level should be the foremost steps in weightlifting, this will ensure that risk of injury is reduced and will support and enhance adaptation and the transferability of exercise to sport, as well as optimising performance.
There will always be a risk of injury in any form of movement or physical activity (Falk, 2019) however, as long as reasonable safety measures are put in place, fatigue is managed and skill competency monitored, weightlifting activities are no more injurious than other sports and exercises programmes (Pierce et al., 2022). In summary, weightlifting training under the attentive supervision of a qualified and experienced coach is a safe and an effective method of training that can have a positive impact on the psychological, physiological, physical and performance development in children and adolescents.
References
Barker, A., Lloyd, R. S., Buchheit, M., Williams, C., & Oliver, J. (2014). The BASES expert statement on trainability during childhood and adolescence. The Sport and Exercise Scientist, 41, 22-23.
Chaouachi, A., Hammami, R., Kaabi, S., Chamari, K., Drinkwater, E. J., & Behm, D. G. (2014). Olympic weightlifting and plyometric training with children provides similar or greater performance improvements than traditional resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(6), 1483-1496.
Collins, H. M., Fawkner, S., Booth, J. N., & Duncan, A. (2022). The impact of resistance training on strength correlates of physical activity in youth. Journal of Sports Sciences, 40(1), 40-49.
Dahab, K. S., & McCambridge, T. M. (2009). Strength training in children and adolescents: Raising the bar for young athletes? Sports Health, 1(3), 223-226.
Faigenbaum, A. D., Kraemer, W. J., Blimkie, C. J. R., Jefferys, I., Micheli, L. J., Nitka, M., & Rowland, T. W. (2009). Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(5), 60-79.
Falk, B. (2019). The safety of resistance training in children – what do we really know! Pediatric Exercise Science, 31, 265-266.
Falk, B. & Eliakim, A. (2003). Resistance training, skeletal muscle and growth. Pediatric Endocrinology Reviews, 1(2), 120-127.
Holmes, C. J. & Granados, A. (2022). Resistance training recommendations for children and adolescents with cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 44(1), 111-118.
Legerlotz, K., Marzilger, R., Bohm, S., & Arampatzis, A. (2016). Physiological adaptations following resistance training in youth athletes – a narrative review. Pediatric Exercise Science, 28, 501-520.
Lloyd, R. S., Faigenbaum, A. D., Myer, G. D., Stone, M. H., Oliver, J. L., Jeffreys, I., Moody, J., Brewer, C., & Pierce, K. (2012). UKSCA position statement: Youth resistance training. Professional Strength and Conditioning, 26, 26-39.
McQuilliam, S. J., Clark, D. R., Erskine, R. M., & Brownlee, T. E. (2020). Free-weight resistance training in youth athletes: a narrative review. Sports Medicine, 50, 1567-1580.
Pierce, K. C., Hornsby, W. G., & Stone, M. H. (2022). Weightlifting for children and adolescents: a narrative review. Sports Health, 14(1), 45-56.
Pichardo, A. W., Oliver, J. L., Harrison, C. B., Maulder, P. S., Lloyd, R. S. and Kandoi, R. (2019). Effects of combined resistance training and weightlifting on motor skill performance of adolescent male athlete. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(12), 3226-3235.
Stricker, P. R., Faigenbaum, A. D., & McCambridge, T. M. (2020). Resistance training for children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 145(1), 1-13.
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